______________________________________________________________________

  5   Expressions                                       [expr]

  ______________________________________________________________________

1 [Note: this clause defines the syntax, order of evaluation, and  mean­
  ing  of  expressions.   An  expression  is a sequence of operators and
  operands that specifies a computation.  An expression can result in  a
  value and can cause side effects.

2 Operators  can  be  overloaded, that is, given meaning when applied to
  expressions of class type (_class_).  Uses of overloaded operators are
  transformed  into  function  calls as described in _over.oper_.  Over­
  loaded operators obey the rules for syntax specified in  this  clause,
  but the requirements of operand type, lvalue, and evaluation order are
  replaced by the rules for function call.  Relations between operators,
  such  as ++a meaning a+=1, are not guaranteed for overloaded operators
  (_over.oper_).1) ]

3 This clause defines the operators when applied to types for which they
  have not been overloaded.  Operator overloading shall not  modify  the
  rules  for  the  built-in operators, that is, for operators applied to
  types for which they are defined by  the  language  itself.   However,
  these  built-in  operators  participate  in  overload  resolution; see
  _over.match.oper_.

4 Operators can be regrouped according to the usual  mathematical  rules
  only where the operators really are associative or commutative.  Over­
  loaded operators are never assumed to be associative  or  commutative.
  Except  where noted, the order of evaluation of operands of individual
  operators and subexpressions of individual expressions, and the  order
  in  which side effects take place, is unspecified.  Between the previ­
  ous and next sequence point a scalar  object  shall  have  its  stored
  value  modified at most once by the evaluation of an expression.  Fur­
  thermore, the prior value shall be  accessed  only  to  determine  the
  value  to  be stored.  The requirements of this paragraph shall be met
  for each allowable ordering of the subexpressions of  a  full  expres­
  sion; otherwise the behavior is undefined.  [Example:
          i = v[i++];      // the behavior is undefined
          i = 7,i++,i++;   // `i' becomes 9

          i = ++i + 1;     // the behavior is undefined
          i = i + 1;       // the value of 'i' is incremented
   --end example]
  _________________________
  1) Nor is it guaranteed for type bool; the left operand  of  +=  shall
  not have type bool.

5 If during the evaluation of an expression, the result is not mathemat­
  ically defined or not in the range of  representable  values  for  its
  type, the behavior is undefined.  [Note: most existing implementations
  of C++ ignore integer overflows.  Treatment of division  by  zero  and
  all  floating  point  exceptions  vary  among machines, and is usually
  adjustable by a library function.  ]

6 Except  where  noted,  operands  of  types  const T,  volatile T,  T&,
  const T&,  and  volatile T&  can  be used as if they were of the plain
  type T.  Similarly, except where noted, operands of type T* const  and
  T* volatile  can  be used as if they were of the plain type T*.  Simi­
  larly, a plain T can be used  where  a  volatile T  or  a  const T  is
  required.   These  rules  apply  in  combination so that, except where
  noted, a T* const volatile can be used where a T* is  required.   Such
  uses do not count as standard conversions when considering overloading
  resolution (_over.match_).

7 If an expression initially has the type "reference to  T"  (_dcl.ref_,
  _dcl.init.ref_), the type is adjusted to T" prior to any further anal­
  ysis, the expression designates the object or function denoted by  the
  reference,  and  the  expression  is  an  lvalue.   A reference can be
  thought of as a name of an object.

8 An expression designating an object is called an object-expression.

9 User-defined conversions of class types to and from fundamental types,
  pointers,  and  so  on, can be defined (_class.conv_).  If unambiguous
  (_over.match_), such conversions are applied wherever a  class  object
  appears  as  an  operand  of  an  operator  or  as a function argument
  (_expr.call_).

10Whenever an lvalue expression appears as an  operand  of  an  operator
  that   expects  an  rvalue  for  that  operand,  the  lvalue-to-rvalue
  (_conv.lval_), array-to-pointer (_conv.array_), or function-to-pointer
  (_conv.func_)  standard  conversion are applied to convert the expres­
  sion to an rvalue.

11Many binary operators that expect operands of  arithmetic  type  cause
  conversions  and  yield result types in a similar way.  The purpose is
  to yield a common type, which is also the type of  the  result.   This
  pattern is called the "usual arithmetic conversions."

12The  processor  shall perform the following conversions on operands of
  arithmetic type:

  --If either operand is of type long double, the other  shall  be  con­
    verted to long double.

  --Otherwise, if either operand is double, the other shall be converted
    to double.

  --Otherwise, if either operand is float, the other shall be  converted
    to float.

  --Otherwise,  the integral promotions (_conv.prom_) shall be performed
    on both operands.2)

  --Then,  if  either  operand  is unsigned long the other shall be con­
    verted to unsigned long.

  --Otherwise, if one operand is a long int and the other unsigned  int,
    then  if a long int can represent all the values of an unsigned int,
    the unsigned int shall be converted to a long  int;  otherwise  both
    operands shall be converted to unsigned long int.

  --Otherwise,  if  either operand is long, the other shall be converted
    to long.

  --Otherwise, if either operand is unsigned, the other  shall  be  con­
    verted to unsigned.

  [Note:  otherwise,  the  only remaining case is that both operands are
  int ]

13If the program attempts to  access  the  stored  value  of  an  object
  through  an lvalue of other than one of the following types the behav­
  ior is undefined:

  --the dynamic type of the object,

  --a cv-qualified version of the declared type of the object,

  --a type that is the signed or  unsigned  type  corresponding  to  the
    declared type of the object,

  --a  type  that  is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to a cv-
    qualified version of the declared type of the object,

  --an aggregate or union type that includes one of  the  aforementioned
    types  among its members (including, recursively, a member of a sub­
    aggregate or contained union),

  --a type that is a (possibly cv-qualified)  base  class  type  of  the
    declared type of the object,

  --a char or unsigned char type.3)

  5.1  Primary expressions                                   [expr.prim]

1 Primary expressions are literals, names, and names  qualified  by  the
  scope resolution operator ::.

  _________________________
  2) As a consequence, operands of type bool, wchar_t, or an  enumerated
  type are converted to some integral type.
  3)  The intent of this list is to specify those circumstances in which
  an object may or may not be aliased.

          primary-expression:
                  literal
                  this
                  :: identifier
                  :: operator-function-id
                  :: qualified-id
                  ( expression )
                  id-expression

2 A  literal  is  a  primary  expression.   Its type depends on its form
  (_lex.literal_).

3 The keyword this names a pointer to the object for which  a  nonstatic
  member  function (_class.this_) is invoked.  The keyword this shall be
  used only inside a nonstatic class member function body (_class.mfct_)
  or in a constructor mem-initializer (_class.base.init_).

4 The operator :: followed by an identifier, a qualified-id, or an oper­
  ator-function-id is a primary-expression.  Its type  is  specified  by
  the declaration of the identifier, name, or operator-function-id.  The
  result is the identifier, name, or operator-function-id.   The  result
  is an lvalue if the identifier, name, or operator-function-id is.  The
  identifier, name, or operator-function-id shall be of global namespace
  scope.   [Note: the use of :: allows a type, an object, a function, or
  an enumerator declared in the global namespace to be referred to  even
  if its identifier has been hidden (_basic.scope_).  ]

5 A  parenthesized  expression  is  a  primary expression whose type and
  value are identical to those of the enclosed expression.  The presence
  of parentheses does not affect whether the expression is an lvalue.

6 A  id-expression is a restricted form of a primary-expression that can
  appear after . and -> (_expr.ref_):
          id-expression:
                  unqualified-id
                  qualified-id

          unqualified-id:
                  identifier
                  operator-function-id
                  conversion-function-id
                  ~ class-name
                  template-id

7 An identifier is  an  id-expression  provided  it  has  been  suitably
  declared   (_dcl.dcl_).    [Note:   for   operator-function-ids,   see
  _over.oper_; for  conversion-function-ids,  see  _class.conv.fct_.   A
  class-name prefixed by ~ denotes a destructor; see _class.dtor_.  ]

8         qualified-id:
                  nested-name-specifier templateopt unqualified-id
  A  nested-name-specifier  that  names a class (_dcl.type_) followed by
  ::, optionally followed by the keyword template (_temp.arg.explicit_),

  and  then  followed  by  the  name  of  a  member of either that class
  (_class.mem_) or one of its base classes (_class.derived_), is a qual­
  ified-id.  If the qualified-id refers to a non-static member, its type
  is the data member type or function member type (_class.mem_);  if  it
  refers  to  a  static  member,  its type is an object or function type
  (_class.static_).  The result is the member.  The result is an  lvalue
  if the member is.  If the class-name is hidden by a name that is not a
  type name or namespace-name, the class-name is still found  and  used.
  Where  class-name :: class-name is used, and the two class-names refer
  to the same class, this notation names the constructor (_class.ctor_).
  Where  class-name  :: ~  class-name is used, the two class-names shall
  refer  to  the  same  class;  this  notation  names   the   destructor
  (_class.dtor_).

9 A  nested-name-specifier  that  names  a namespace (_basic.namespace_)
  followed by ::, followed by the name of a member of that namespace  is
  a   qualified-id;   names   introduced  by  using-directives  (_names­
  pace.udir_) in the namespace denoted by the nested-name-specifier  are
  ignored for the purpose of this member lookup.  The type of the quali­
  fied-id is the type of the member.  The result  is  the  member.   The
  result is an lvalue if the member is.  If the namespace-name is hidden
  by a name that is not a type name, the namespace-name is  still  found
  and used.

10Multiply  qualified names, such as N1::N2::N3::n, can be used to refer
  to nested types (_class.nest_).

11In a qualified-id, if the id-expression is  a  conversion-function-id,
  its  conversion-type-id shall denote the same type in both the context
  in which the entire qualified-id occurs and  in  the  context  of  the
  class denoted by the nested-name-specifier.

12An  id-expression  that denotes a nonstatic member of a class can only
  be used:

  --as part of a class member access (_expr.ref_) in which  the  object-
    expression refers to the member's class or a class derived from that
    class, or

  --to form a pointer to member (_expr.unary.op_), or

  --in the body of a nonstatic member function of that  class  or  of  a
    class derived from that class (_class.mfct.nonstatic_), or

  --in a mem-initializer for a constructor for that class or for a class
    derived from that class (_class.base.init_).

13A template-id shall be used as an unqualified-id only as specified  in
  clauses _temp.explicit_, _temp.spec_, and _temp.class.spec_.

  5.2  Postfix expressions                                   [expr.post]

1 Postfix expressions group left-to-right.
          postfix-expression:
                  primary-expression
                  postfix-expression [ expression ]
                  postfix-expression ( expression-listopt )
                  simple-type-specifier ( expression-listopt )
                  postfix-expression . templateopt id-expression
                  postfix-expression -> templateopt id-expression
                  postfix-expression ++
                  postfix-expression --
                  dynamic_cast < type-id > ( expression )
                  static_cast < type-id > ( expression )
                  reinterpret_cast < type-id > ( expression )
                  const_cast < type-id > ( expression )
                  typeid ( expression )
                  typeid ( type-id )
          expression-list:
                  assignment-expression
                  expression-list , assignment-expression

  5.2.1  Subscripting                                         [expr.sub]

1 A postfix expression followed by an expression in square brackets is a
  postfix expression.  [Note: the intuitive meaning is that  of  a  sub­
  script.   ]  One of the expressions shall have the type "pointer to T"
  and the other shall be of enumeration or integral type.  The result is
  an lvalue of type "T." The type "T" shall be complete.  The expression
  E1[E2] is identical  (by  definition)  to  *((E1)+(E2)).   [Note:  see
  _expr.unary_ and _expr.add_ for details of * and + and _dcl.array_ for
  details of arrays.  ]

  5.2.2  Function call                                       [expr.call]

1 There are two kinds of function call: ordinary function call and  mem­
  ber function4) (_class.mfct_) call.  A  function  call  is  a  postfix
  expression followed by parentheses containing a possibly empty, comma-
  separated list of expressions which constitute the  arguments  to  the
  function.  For ordinary function call, the postfix expression shall be
  a function name, or a pointer or reference to a function.  For  member
  function   call,   the   postfix   expression  shall  be  an  implicit
  (_class.mfct.nonstatic_,  _class.static_)  or  explicit  class  member
  access  (_expr.ref_) whose id-expression is a function member name, or
  a pointer-to-member expression (_expr.mptr.oper_) selecting a function
  member.  The first expression in the postfix expression is then called
  the object expression, and the call is  as  a  member  of  the  object
  pointed  to  or  referred to.  In the case of an implicit class member
  access, the implied object is the one pointed to by  this.   [Note:  a
  member  function  call  of  the form f() is interpreted as (*this).f()
  _________________________
  4)  A static member function (_class.static_) is an ordinary function.

  (see _class.mfct.nonstatic_).  ] If a function or member function name
  is used, the name can be overloaded (_over_), in which case the appro­
  priate  function  shall  be  selected  according  to  the   rules   in
  _over.match_.   The  function called in a member function call is nor­
  mally selected according to the static type of the  object  expression
  (see  _class.derived_),  but  if that function is virtual the function
  actually called will be the final overrider (_class.virtual_)  of  the
  selected  function in the dynamic type of the object expression [Note:
  the type of the object pointed or referred to by the current value  of
  the object expression.  Clause _class.cdtor_ describes the behavior of
  virtual function calls when the object-expression refers to an  object
  under construction or destruction.  ]

2 The  type  of  the  function call expression is the return type of the
  statically chosen function (i.e., ignoring the virtual keyword),  even
  if  the  type of the function actually called is different.  This type
  shall be complete or the type void.

3 When a function is called, each parameter (_dcl.fct_)  shall  be  ini­
  tialized  (_dcl.init.ref_, _class.copy_, _class.ctor_) with its corre­
  sponding argument.  Standard (_conv_) and user-defined  (_class.conv_)
  conversions  shall  be performed.  The value of a function call is the
  value returned by the called function except  in  a  virtual  function
  call  if  the return type of the final overrider is different from the
  return type of the statically chosen function, the value returned from
  the  final overrider is converted to the return type of the statically
  chosen function.

4 [Note: a function can change the values of its nonconstant parameters,
  but  these  changes  cannot  affect the values of the arguments except
  where a parameter is of a non-const reference type (_dcl.ref_).  Where
  a  parameter  is of reference type a temporary object is introduced if
  needed   (_dcl.type_,   _lex.literal_,   _lex.string_,    _dcl.array_,
  _class.temporary_).   In addition, it is possible to modify the values
  of nonconstant objects through pointer parameters.

5 A function can be declared to accept  fewer  arguments  (by  declaring
  default arguments (_dcl.fct.default_)) or more arguments (by using the
  ellipsis, ...  _dcl.fct_) than the number of parameters in  the  func­
  tion definition (_dcl.fct.def_).  ]

6 If  no declaration of the called function is accessible from the scope
  of the call the program is  ill-formed.   [Note:  this  implies  that,
  except where the ellipsis (...)  is used, a parameter is available for
  each argument.  ]

7 Any argument of type float for which there is  no  parameter  is  con­
  verted  to  double before the call; any of char, short, or a bit-field
  type for which there is no parameter are converted to int or  unsigned
  by integral promotion (_conv.prom_).  Any argument of enumeration type
  is converted to int, unsigned, long, or unsigned long by integral pro­
  motion.  An argument of a POD class type T, for which no corresponding
  parameter is declared, is passed in a manner such that  the  receiving
  function  can  obtain  its value by an invocation of va_arg(T).  If an

  argument of a non-POD class type is passed, and  there  is  no  corre­
  sponding parameter, the behavior is undefined.

8 [Note:  an  argument of class type for which a corresponding parameter
  is declared is passed according to the rules above.  ]

9 The order of evaluation of arguments is unspecified.  All side effects
  of  argument  expressions  take effect before the function is entered.
  The order of evaluation of the postfix  expression  and  the  argument
  expression list is unspecified.

10The  function-to-pointer  standard  conversion  (_conv.func_)  is sup­
  pressed on the postfix expression of a function call.

11Recursive calls are permitted.

12A function call is an lvalue if and only if the result type is a  ref­
  erence.

  5.2.3  Explicit type conversion (functional           [expr.type.conv]
       notation)

1 A  simple-type-specifier  (_dcl.type_)  followed  by  a  parenthesized
  expression-list  constructs  a  value  of the specified type given the
  expression list.  If the expression list specifies a single value, the
  expression  is  equivalent (in definedness, and if defined in meaning)
  to the corresponding cast expression (_expr.cast_).  If the expression
  list  specifies  more  than  a single value, the type shall be a class
  with a suitably declared constructor (_dcl.init_,  _class.ctor_),  and
  the expression T(x1, x2, ...)  is equivalent in effect to the declara­
  tion T t(x1, x2, ...); for some invented temporary  variable  t,  with
  the result being the value of t as an rvalue.

2 The    expression    T(),   where   T   is   a   simple-type-specifier
  (_dcl.type.simple_), creates an rvalue of the  specified  type,  whose
  value is determined by default-initialization (_dcl.init_).

  5.2.4  Class member access                                  [expr.ref]

1 A  postfix  expression followed by a dot .  or an arrow ->, optionally
  followed by the keyword template (_temp.arg.explicit_), and then  fol­
  lowed  by  an  id-expression,  is  a  postfix expression.  The postfix
  expression before the dot or arrow is evaluated;5) the result of  that
  evaluation,  together  with the id-expression, determine the result of
  the entire postfix expression.

2 For the first option (dot) the  type  of  the  first  expression  (the
  object  expression) shall be "class object" (of a complete type).  For
  the second option (arrow)  the  type  of  the  first  expression  (the
  _________________________
  5) This evaluation happens even if the result is unnecessary to deter­
  mine  the  value  of the entire postfix expression, for example if the
  id-expression denotes a static member.

  pointer  expression) shall be "pointer to class object" (of a complete
  type).  The id-expression shall name a member of  that  class,  except
  that an imputed destructor can be explicitly invoked for a scalar type
  (_class.dtor_).  If E1 has the type "pointer to  class  X,"  then  the
  expression  E1->E2 is converted to the equivalent form (*(E1)).E2; the
  remainder of  this  subclause  will  address  only  the  first  option
  (dot)6).

3 If the id-expression is a qualified-id, the  nested-name-specifier  of
  the qualified-id can specify a namespace name or a class name.  If the
  nested-name-specifier of the qualified-id specifies a namespace  name,
  the  name  is  looked  up  in the context in which the entire postfix-
  expression occurs.  If the nested-name-specifier of  the  qualified-id
  specifies  a class name, the class name is looked up as a type both in
  the class of the object expression (or the class  pointed  to  by  the
  pointer  expression)  and  the  context  in  which the entire postfix-
  expression occurs.  [Note: by the "injection" rules, the name, if any,
  of  each class is also considered a nested class member of that class.
  ] These searches shall yield a single type.  [Note: the type might  be
  found in either or both contexts.  ] If the nested-name-specifier con­
  tains a class template-id (_temp.names_), its  template-arguments  are
  evaluated  in  the  context  in  which  the  entire postfix-expression
  occurs.

4 Similarly, if the id-expression is a conversion-function-id, its  con­
  version-type-id  shall  denote  the  same  type in both the context in
  which the entire postfix-expression occurs and in the context  of  the
  class of the object expression (or the class pointed to by the pointer
  expression).

5 Abbreviating object-expression.id-expression as E1.E2, then  the  type
  and  lvalue  properties  of this expression are determined as follows.
  In the remainder of this subclause, cq represents either const or  the
  absence  of  const;  vq  represents  either volatile or the absence of
  volatile.  cv represents an arbitrary set of cv-qualifiers, as defined
  in _basic.type.qualifier_.

6 If  E2  is  declared  to  have type "reference to T", then E1.E2 is an
  lvalue; the type of E1.E2 is T.  Otherwise, one of the following rules
  applies.

  --If  E2  is a static data member, and the type of E2 is T, then E1.E2
    is an lvalue; the expression designates  the  named  member  of  the
    class.  The type of E1.E2 is T.

  --If  E2  is  a  (possibly overloaded) static member function, and the
    type of E2 is "function of (parameter type list) returning T",  then
    E1.E2  is  an  lvalue;  the  expression designates the static member
    function.  The type of E1.E2 is the same type as that of E2,  namely
  _________________________
  6)  Note that if E1 has the type "pointer to class X", then (*(E1)) is
  an lvalue.

    "function of (parameter type list) returning T".

  --If  E2  is  a non-static data member, and the type of E1 is "cq1 vq1
    X", and the type of E2 is "cq2 vq2 T", the expression designates the
    named  member  of the object designated by the first expression.  If
    E1 is an lvalue, then E1.E2 is an lvalue.   Let  the  notation  vq12
    stand  for  the  "union"  of vq1 and vq2 ; that is, if vq1 or vq2 is
    volatile, then vq12 is volatile.  Similarly, let the  notation  cq12
    stand  for  the  "union"  of  cq1 and cq2; that is, if cq1 or cq2 is
    const, then cq12 is const.  If E2 is declared to be a  mutable  mem­
    ber,  then  the type of E1.E2 is "vq12 T".  If E2 is not declared to
    be a mutable member, then the type of E1.E2 is "cq12 vq12 T".

  --If E2 is a (possibly overloaded) non-static member function, and the
    type  of  E2  is "cv function of (parameter type list) returning T",
    then E1.E2 is not an lvalue.  The  expression  designates  a  member
    function  (of some class X).  The expression can be used only as the
    left-hand operand of a member  function  call  (_class.mfct_).   The
    member  function  shall be at least as cv-qualified as E1.  The type
    of E1.E2 is "class X's cv member function of (parameter  type  list)
    returning T".

  --If E2 is a nested type, the expression E1.E2 is ill-formed.

  --If  E2  is a member enumerator, and the type of E2 is T, the expres­
    sion E1.E2 is not an lvalue.  The type of E1.E2 is T.

7 [Note: "class objects" can  be  structures  (_class.mem_)  and  unions
  (_class.union_).  Classes are discussed in clause _class_.  ]

  5.2.5  Increment and decrement                        [expr.post.incr]

1 The  value  obtained  by  applying  a postfix ++ is the value that the
  operand had before applying the operator.  [Note: the  value  obtained
  is  a  copy  of the original value ] The operand shall be a modifiable
  lvalue.  The type of the operand shall be  an  arithmetic  type  or  a
  pointer  to  object type.  After the result is noted, the value of the
  object is modified by adding 1 to it, unless the  object  is  of  type
  bool, in which case it is set to true.  [Note: this use is deprecated.
  ] The type of the result is the same as the type of the  operand,  but
  it is not an lvalue.  See also _expr.add_ and _expr.ass_.

2 The operand of postfix -- is decremented analogously to the postfix ++
  operator, except that the operand shall not be of type bool.

  5.2.6  Dynamic cast                                [expr.dynamic.cast]

1 The result of the expression dynamic_cast<T>(v) is the result of  con­
  verting the expression v to type T.  T shall be a pointer or reference
  to a complete class type, or "pointer to cv void".  Types shall not be
  defined  in  a dynamic_cast.  The dynamic_cast operator shall not cast
  away constness (_expr.const.cast_).

2 If T is a pointer type, v shall be an rvalue of a pointer to  complete
  class  type,  and the result is an rvalue of type T.  If T is a refer­
  ence type, v shall be an lvalue of a  complete  class  type,  and  the
  result is an lvalue of the type referred to by T.

3 If  the  type of v is the same as the required result type (which, for
  convenience, will be called R in this description), or it can be  con­
  verted  to  R  via  a  qualification  conversion  (_conv.qual_) in the
  pointer case, the result is v (converted if necessary).

4 If the value of v is a null pointer value in  the  pointer  case,  the
  result is the null pointer value of type R.

5 If T is "pointer to cv1 B" and v has type "pointer to cv2 D" such that
  B is a base class of D, the result is a pointer to the unique  B  sub-
  object of the D object pointed to by v.  Similarly, if T is "reference
  to cv1 B" and v has type cv2 D" such that B is a base class of D,  the
  result  is  an  lvalue  for  the unique7) B sub-object of the D object
  referred  to by v.  In both the pointer and reference cases, cv1 shall
  be the same cv-qualification as,  or  greater  cv-qualification  than,
  cv2,  and  B  shall  be  an  accessible  nonambiguous base class of D.
  [Example:
          struct B {};
          struct D : B {};
          void foo(D* dp)
          {
              B*  bp = dynamic_cast<B*>(dp);  // equivalent to B* bp = dp;
          }
   --end example]

6 Otherwise, v shall be a pointer to or an lvalue of a polymorphic  type
  (_class.virtual_).

7 If T is "pointer to cv void," then the result is a pointer to the com­
  plete object (_class.base.init_) pointed to by v.  Otherwise,  a  run-
  time check is applied to see if the object pointed or referred to by v
  can be converted to the type pointed or referred to by T.

8 The run-time check logically executes like this: If, in  the  complete
  object  pointed (referred) to by v, v points (refers) to a public base
  class sub-object of a T object, and if only one object of  type  T  is
  derived  from the sub-object referred to by v, the result is a pointer
  (an lvalue referring) to that T object.  Otherwise, if the type of the
  complete  object  has  an unambiguous public base class of type T, the
  result is a pointer (reference) to the T sub-object  of  the  complete
  object.  Otherwise, the run-time check fails.

9 The  value  of a failed cast to pointer type is the null pointer value
  of the required result type.  A failed cast to reference  type  throws
  bad_cast (_lib.bad.cast_).  [Example:
  _________________________
  7) The complete object pointed or referred to by v can contain other B
  objects as base classes, but these are ignored.

          class A { virtual void f(); };
          class B { virtual void g(); };
          class D : public virtual A, private B {};
          void g()
          {
              D   d;
              B*  bp = (B*)&d;  // cast needed to break protection
              A*  ap = &d;      // public derivation, no cast needed
              D&  dr = dynamic_cast<D&>(*bp);  // succeeds
              ap = dynamic_cast<A*>(bp);       // succeeds
              bp = dynamic_cast<B*>(ap);       // fails
              ap = dynamic_cast<A*>(&dr);      // succeeds
              bp = dynamic_cast<B*>(&dr);      // fails
          }
          class E : public D , public B {};
          class F : public E, public D {}
          void h()
          {
              F   f;
              A*  ap = &f;  // okay: finds unique A
              D*  dp = dynamic_cast<D*>(ap);  // fails: ambiguous
              E*  ep = (E*)ap;  // error: cast from virtual base
              E*  ep = dynamic_cast<E*>(ap);  // succeeds
          }
    --end example] [Note: Clause _class.cdtor_ describes the behavior of
  a dynamic_cast applied to an object under construction or destruction.
  ]

  5.2.7  Type identification                               [expr.typeid]

1 The  result  of  a typeid expression is of type const type_info&.  The
  value is a reference to a type_info object (_lib.type.info_) that rep­
  resents the type-id or the type of the expression respectively.

2 If   the   expression   is   a   reference   to   a  polymorphic  type
  (_class.virtual_),   the   type_info   for   the    complete    object
  (_class.base.init_) referred to is the result.

3 If  the expression is the result of applying unary * to a pointer to a
  polymorphic  type,8) then the pointer shall either be zero or point to
  a valid object.  If the pointer is zero, the typeid expression  throws
  the bad_typeid exception (_lib.bad.typeid_).  Otherwise, the result of
  the typeid expression is the value that represents  the  type  of  the
  complete object to which the pointer points.

4 If  the  expression  is  the  result  of  subscripting  (_expr.sub_) a
  pointer, say p, that points to a polymorphic type,9) then  the  result
  _________________________
  8) If p is a pointer, then *p, (*p), ((*p)), and so on all  meet  this
  requirement.
  9) If p is a pointer to a polymorphic type and i has integral or  enu­
  merated  type,  then  p[i],  (p[i]),  (p)[i],  ((((p))[((i))])), i[p],
  (i[p]), and so on all meet this requirement.

  of  the typeid expression is that of typeid(*p).  The subscript is not
  evaluated.

5 If the expression is neither a pointer nor a reference to  a  polymor­
  phic  type, the result is the type_info representing the (static) type
  of the expression.  The expression is not evaluated.

6 In all  cases  typeid  ignores  the  top-level  cv-qualifiers  of  its
  operand's type.  [Example:
          class D { ... };
          D d1;
          const D d2;
          typeid(d1) == typeid(d2);      // yields true
          typeid(D)  == typeid(const D); // yields true
          typeid(D)  == typeid(d2);      // yields true
    --end example] [Note: Clause _class.cdtor_ describes the behavior of
  typeid applied to an object under construction or destruction.  ]

  5.2.8  Static cast                                  [expr.static.cast]

1 The result of the expression static_cast<T>(v) is the result  of  con­
  verting  the  expression  v  to type T.  If T is a reference type, the
  result is an lvalue; otherwise, the result is an rvalue.  Types  shall
  not  be  defined in a static_cast.  The static_cast operator shall not
  cast away constness.  See _expr.const.cast_.

2 Any implicit conversion (including standard conversions  and/or  user-
  defined  conversions; see _conv_ and _over.best.ics_) can be performed
  explicitly using static_cast.  More precisely, if T t(v); is  a  well-
  formed  declaration,  for some invented temporary variable t, then the
  result of static_cast<T>(v) is defined to be the temporary t,  and  is
  an  lvalue  if  T  is  a reference type, and an rvalue otherwise.  The
  expression v shall be an lvalue if the equivalent declaration requires
  an lvalue for v.

3 If  the  static_cast  does not correspond to an implicit conversion by
  the above definition, it shall perform one of the  conversions  listed
  below.   No  other  conversion  can  be  performed  explicitly using a
  static_cast.

4 Any expression can be explicitly  converted  to  type  cv  void."  The
  expression value is discarded.

5 An  lvalue expression of type T1 can be cast to the type "reference to
  T2" if an expression of type "pointer to T1" can  be  explicitly  con­
  verted  to  the  type "pointer to T2" using a static_cast.  That is, a
  reference cast static_cast<T&>x has the same effect as the  conversion
  *static_cast<T*>&x with the built-in & and * operators.  The result is
  an  lvalue.   This  interpretation  is  used  only  if  the   original
  static_cast  is  not  well-formed  as an implicit conversion under the
  rules given above.  This form of reference cast creates an lvalue that
  refers  to  the same object as the source lvalue, but with a different
  type.  [Note: it does not create a temporary or copy the  object,  and

  constructors (_class.ctor_) or conversion functions (_class.conv_) are
  not called.  For example,
          struct B {};
          struct D : public B {};
          D d;
          // creating a temporary for the B sub-object not allowed
          ... (const B&) d ...
   --end note]

6 The inverse of  any  standard  conversion  (_conv_),  other  than  the
  lvalue-to-rvalue  (_conv.lval_),  array-to-pointer (_conv.array_), and
  function-to-pointer  (_conv.func_)  conversions,  can   be   performed
  explicitly  using  static_cast  subject  to  the  restriction that the
  explicit conversion does not cast away constness  (_expr.const.cast_),
  and the following additional rules for specific cases:

7 A value of integral type can be explicitly converted to an enumeration
  type.  The value is unchanged if the  integral  value  is  within  the
  range of the enumeration values (_dcl.enum_). Otherwise, the resulting
  enumeration value is unspecified.

8 An rvalue of type "pointer to cv1 B", where B is a class type, can  be
  converted  to an rvalue of type "pointer to cv2 D", where D is a class
  derived (_class.derived_) from B, if a valid standard conversion  from
  "pointer  to  cv2 D" to "pointer to cv2 B" exists (_conv.ptr_), cv2 is
  the same cv-qualification as, or greater cv-qualification  than,  cv1,
  and  B  is  not  a  virtual  base  class of D.  The null pointer value
  (_conv.ptr_) is converted to the null pointer value of the destination
  type.   If the rvalue of type "pointer to cv1 B" points to a B that is
  actually a sub-object of an object of type D,  the  resulting  pointer
  points  to  the  enclosing object of type D.  Otherwise, the result of
  the cast is undefined.

9 An rvalue of type "pointer to member of D of type cv1 T" can  be  con­
  verted  to  an  rvalue of type "pointer to member of B of type cv2 T",
  where B is a base class (_class.derived_) of D, if  a  valid  standard
  conversion  from "pointer to member of B of type cv2 T" to "pointer to
  member of D of type cv2 T" exists (_conv.mem_), and cv2  is  the  same
  cv-qualification  as, or greater cv-qualification than, cv1.  The null
  member pointer value (_conv.mem_) is  converted  to  the  null  member
  pointer  value of the destination type.  If class B contains or inher­
  its the original member, the resulting pointer to member points to the
  member in class B.  Otherwise, the result of the cast is undefined.

  5.2.9  Reinterpret cast                        [expr.reinterpret.cast]

1 The  result  of the expression reinterpret_cast<T>(v) is the result of
  converting the expression v to type T.  If T is a reference type,  the
  result  is an lvalue; otherwise, the result is an rvalue.  Types shall
  not be defined in a reinterpret_cast.  Conversions that  can  be  per­
  formed  explicitly  using reinterpret_cast are listed below.  No other
  conversion can be performed explicitly using reinterpret_cast.

2 The reinterpret_cast operator shall not cast  away  constness;  [Note:
  see  _expr.const.cast_  for  the  definition  of ``casting away const­
  ness''.  ]

3 The mapping performed by reinterpret_cast  is  implementation-defined.
  [Note: it might, or might not, produce a representation different from
  the original value.  ]

4 A pointer can be explicitly  converted  to  any  integral  type  large
  enough  to  hold  it.   The mapping function is implementation-defined
  [Note: it is intended  to  be  unsurprising  to  those  who  know  the
  addressing structure of the underlying machine.  ]

5 A  value of integral type can be explicitly converted to a pointer.  A
  pointer converted to an integer of sufficient size (if any such exists
  on the implementation) and back to the same pointer type will have its
  original value; mappings between pointers and integers  are  otherwise
  implementation-defined.

6 The  operand  of  a  pointer cast can be an rvalue of type "pointer to
  incomplete class type".  The destination type of a pointer cast can be
  "pointer  to  incomplete  class type".  In such cases, if there is any
  inheritance relationship between the source and  destination  classes,
  the behavior is undefined.

7 A  pointer to a function can be explicitly converted to a pointer to a
  function of a different  type.   The  effect  of  calling  a  function
  through  a  pointer to a function type that differs from the type used
  in the definition of the function is undefined.  Except that  convert­
  ing  an  rvalue  of  type  "pointer to T1" to the type "pointer to T2"
  (where T1 and T2 are function types) and back  to  its  original  type
  yields  the  original pointer value, the result of such a pointer con­
  version is unspecified; [Note: see also _conv.ptr_ for more details of
  pointer conversions.  ]

8 A  pointer to an object can be explicitly converted to a pointer to an
  object of different type.  Except that converting an  rvalue  of  type
  "pointer  to  T1"  to  the  type  "pointer to T2" (where T1 and T2 are
  object types and  where  the  alignment  requirements  of  T2  are  no
  stricter  than  those  of T1) and back to its original type yields the
  original pointer value, the result of such  a  pointer  conversion  is
  unspecified;

9 The  null  pointer value (_conv.ptr_) is converted to the null pointer
  value of the destination type.

10An rvalue of type "pointer to member of X of type T1", can be  explic­
  itly  converted  to  an rvalue of type "pointer to member of Y of type
  T2", if T1 and T2 are both function types or both data  member  types.
  The  null  member  pointer value (_conv.mem_) is converted to the null
  member pointer value of the destination type.  The result of this con­
  version is unspecified, except in the following cases:

  --converting  an  rvalue  of  type  "pointer  to member function" to a

    different pointer to member function type and back to  its  original
    type yields the original pointer to member value.

  --converting  an  rvalue  of type "pointer to data member of X of type
    T1" to the type "pointer to data member of Y of type T2" (where  the
    alignment  requirements  of T2 are no stricter than those of T1) and
    back to its original type yields  the  original  pointer  to  member
    value.

11Calling  a member function through a pointer to member that represents
  a function type that differs from the function type specified  on  the
  member function declaration results in undefined behavior.

12An  lvalue expression of type T1 can be cast to the type "reference to
  T2" if an expression of type "pointer to T1" can  be  explicitly  con­
  verted to the type "pointer to T2" using a reinterpret_cast.  That is,
  a reference cast reinterpret_cast<T&>x has the same effect as the con­
  version  *reinterpret_cast<T*>&x  with the built-in & and * operators.
  The result is an lvalue that refers to the same object as  the  source
  lvalue,  but  with a different type.  No temporary is created, no copy
  is made,  and  constructors  (_class.ctor_)  or  conversion  functions
  (_class.conv_) are not called.

  5.2.10  Const cast                                   [expr.const.cast]

1 The  result  of  the expression const_cast<T>(v) is of type "T." Types
  shall not be defined in a const_cast.  Conversions that  can  be  per­
  formed explicitly using const_cast are listed below.  No other conver­
  sion shall be performed explicitly using const_cast.

2 An rvalue of type "pointer to cv1 T" can be  explicitly  converted  to
  the  type "pointer to cv2 T", where T is any object type and where cv1
  and cv2 are cv-qualifications, using the cast const_cast<cv2 T*>.   An
  lvalue  of type cv1 T can be explicitly converted to an lvalue of type
  cv2 T, where T is any object type  and  where  cv1  and  cv2  are  cv-
  qualifications,  using  the  cast const_cast<cv2 T&>.  The result of a
  pointer or reference const_cast refers to the original object.

3 An rvalue of type "pointer to member of  X  of  type  cv1  T"  can  be
  explicitly  converted  to the type "pointer to member of X of type cv2
  T", where T is a data member type  and  where  cv1  and  cv2  are  cv-
  qualifiers,  using  the  cast const_cast<cv2 T X::*>.  The result of a
  pointer to member const_cast will refer to  the  same  member  as  the
  original (uncast) pointer to data member.

4 The  following rules define casting away constness.  In these rules Tn
  and Xn represent types.  For two pointer types:

            X1 is T1cv1,1 * ... cv1,N *   where T1 is not a pointer type
            X2 is T2cv2,1 * ... cv2,N *   where T2 is not a pointer type
            K is min(N,M)
  casting from X1 to X2 casts away constness if, for a non-pointer  type
  T (e.g., int), there does not exist an implicit conversion from:

            Tcv1,(N-K+1) * cv1,(N-K+2) * ... cv1,N *
  to

            Tcv2,(N-K+1) * cv2,(M-K+2) * ... cv2,M *

5 Casting from an lvalue of type T1 to an lvalue of type T2 using a ref­
  erence cast casts away constness if a cast  from  an  rvalue  of  type
  "pointer to T1" to the type "pointer to T2" casts away constness.

6 Casting  from  an  rvalue of type "pointer to data member of X of type
  T1" to the type "pointer to data member of Y of type  T2"  casts  away
  constness if a cast from an rvalue of type "pointer to T1" to the type
  "pointer to T2" casts away constness.

7 [Note: these rules are not intended to protect constness in all cases.
  For  instance,  conversions between pointers to functions are not cov­
  ered because such conversions lead to values whose  use  causes  unde­
  fined behavior.  For the same reasons, conversions between pointers to
  member functions, and in particular, the conversion from a pointer  to
  a  const  member function to a pointer to a non-const member function,
  are not covered.  For multi-level pointers to data members, or  multi-
  level  mixed  object  and member pointers, the same rules apply as for
  multi-level object pointers.  That is, the "member  of"  attribute  is
  ignored  for purposes of determining whether const has been cast away.

8 Depending on the type of the object, a  write  operation  through  the
  pointer,  lvalue or pointer to data member resulting from a const_cast
  that   casts   away   constness   may   produce   undefined   behavior
  (_dcl.type.cv_).  ]

9 A  null  pointer  value  (_conv.ptr_) is converted to the null pointer
  value  of  the  destination  type.   The  null  member  pointer  value
  (_conv.mem_) is converted to the null member pointer value of the des­
  tination type.

  5.3  Unary expressions                                    [expr.unary]

1 Expressions with unary operators group right-to-left.
          unary-expression:
                  postfix-expression
                  ++  unary-expression
                  --  unary-expression
                  unary-operator cast-expression
                  sizeof unary-expression
                  sizeof ( type-id )
                  new-expression
                  delete-expression
          unary-operator: one of
                  *  &  +  -  !  ~

  5.3.1  Unary operators                                 [expr.unary.op]

1 The unary * operator means indirection:  the  expression  shall  be  a
  pointer,  and the result is an lvalue referring to the object or func­
  tion to which the expression points.  If the type of the expression is
  "pointer to T," the type of the result is "T."

2 The  result  of the unary & operator is a pointer to its operand.  The
  operand shall be an lvalue or a qualified-id.  In the first  case,  if
  the  type of the expression is "T," the type of the result is "pointer
  to T." In particular, the address of an  object  of  type  "cv  T"  is
  "pointer to cv T," with the same cv-qualifiers.  [Example: the address
  of an object of type "const int" has type "pointer to  const  int."  ]
  For  a qualified-id, if the member is a nonstatic member of class C of
  type T, the type of the result is "pointer to member  of  class  C  of
  type T." [Example:
          struct A { int i; };
          struct B : A { };
          ... &B::i ... // has type "int A::*"
    --end  example]  For  a static member of type "T", the type is plain
  "pointer to T." [Note: a pointer to member  is  only  formed  when  an
  explicit  &  is used and its operand is a qualified-id not enclosed in
  parentheses.  [Example:  the  expression  &(qualified-id),  where  the
  qualified-id  is  enclosed in parentheses, does not form an expression
  of type "pointer to member."  ]  Neither  does  qualified-id,  because
  there  is no implicit conversion from the type "nonstatic member func­
  tion" to the type "pointer to member function", as there  is  from  an
  lvalue   of   function   type   to  the  type  "pointer  to  function"
  (_conv.func_).  Nor is  &unqualified-id  a  pointer  to  member,  even
  within the scope of unqualified-id's class.  ]

3 The  address  of an object of incomplete type can be taken, but if the
  complete type of that object has the address-of operator (operator&())
  overloaded,  then  the  behavior  is  undefined  (and no diagnostic is
  required).

4 The address of an overloaded function (_over_) can be taken only in  a
  context that uniquely determines which version of the overloaded func­
  tion is referred to (see _over.over_).  [Note: since the context might
  determine  whether  the  operand is a static or nonstatic member func­
  tion, the context can also affect  whether  the  expression  has  type
  "pointer to function" or "pointer to member function." ]

5 The  operand  of  the unary + operator shall have arithmetic, enumera­
  tion, or pointer type and the result is the  value  of  the  argument.
  Integral  promotion  is performed on integral or enumeration operands.
  The type of the result is the type of the promoted operand.

6 The operand of the unary - operator shall have arithmetic or  enumera­
  tion  type  and  the  result is the negation of its operand.  Integral
  promotion is performed on integral or enumeration operands.  The nega­
  tive of an unsigned quantity is computed by subtracting its value from
  2n, where n is the number of bits in the promoted operand.   The  type
  of the result is the type of the promoted operand.

7 The  operand  of the logical negation operator !  is converted to bool
  (_conv.bool_); its value is true if the converted operand is false and
  false otherwise.  The type of the result is bool.

8 The  operand  of ~ shall have integral or enumeration type; the result
  is the one's complement of its operand.  Integral promotions are  per­
  formed.  The type of the result is the type of the promoted operand.

  5.3.2  Increment and decrement                         [expr.pre.incr]

1 The operand of prefix ++ is modified by adding 1, or set to true if it
  is bool (this use is deprecated).  The operand shall be  a  modifiable
  lvalue.   The  type  of  the  operand shall be an arithmetic type or a
  pointer to a completely-defined object type.  The  value  is  the  new
  value  of the operand; it is an lvalue.  If x is not of type bool, the
  expression ++x is equivalent to x+=1.  [Note: see the  discussions  of
  addition (_expr.add_) and assignment operators (_expr.ass_) for infor­
  mation on conversions.  ]

2 The operand of prefix -- is decremented analogously to the  prefix  ++
  operator, except that the operand shall not be of type bool.

  5.3.3  Sizeof                                            [expr.sizeof]

1 The sizeof operator yields the number of bytes in the object represen­
  tation of its operand.  The operand is either an expression, which  is
  not  evaluated, or a parenthesized type-id.  The sizeof operator shall
  not be applied to an expression that has function or incomplete  type,
  or  to  an  enumeration  type  before  all  its  enumerators have been
  declared, or to the parenthesized name of such types, or to an  lvalue
  that   designates   a   bit-field.   [Note:  sizeof(char)  is  1,  but
  sizeof(bool) and sizeof(wchar_t) are implementation-defined.  10)  See
  _intro.memory_  for  the  definition of byte and _basic.types_ for the
  definition of object representation.  ]

2 When applied to a reference, the result is the size of the  referenced
  object.  When applied to a class, the result is the number of bytes in
  an object of that class including any  padding  required  for  placing
  such  objects  in  an array.  The size of any class or class object is
  greater than zero.  When applied to an array, the result is the  total
  number  of bytes in the array.  This implies that the size of an array
  of n elements is n times the size of an element.

3 The sizeof operator can be applied to a pointer  to  a  function,  but
  shall not be applied directly to a function.

4 The  lvalue-to-rvalue  (_conv.lval_), array-to-pointer (_conv.array_),
  and function-to-pointer (_conv.func_) standard  conversions  are  sup­
  pressed on the operand of sizeof.

  _________________________
  10) sizeof(bool) is not required to be 1.

5 Types shall not be defined in a sizeof expression.

6 The  result  is  a constant of an implementation-defined type which is
  the same type as that which is named size_t  in  the  standard  header
  <cstddef>(_lib.support.types_).

  5.3.4  New                                                  [expr.new]

1 The  new-expression  attempts  to  create  an  object  of  the type-id
  (_dcl.name_) to which it is applied.  This type shall  be  a  complete
  nonabstract  object type or array type (_intro.object_, _basic.types_,
  _class.abstract_).
          new-expression:
                  ::opt new new-placementopt new-type-id new-initializeropt
                  ::opt new new-placementopt ( type-id ) new-initializeropt
          new-placement:
                  ( expression-list )
          new-type-id:
                  type-specifier-seq new-declaratoropt
          new-declarator:
                  * cv-qualifier-seqopt new-declaratoropt
                   ::opt nested-name-specifier * cv-qualifier-seqopt new-declaratoropt
                  direct-new-declarator
          direct-new-declarator:
                  [ expression ]
                  direct-new-declarator [ constant-expression ]
          new-initializer:
                  ( expression-listopt )
  Entities created by a new-expression  have  dynamic  storage  duration
  (_basic.stc.dynamic_).   [Note:  the lifetime of such an entity is not
  necessarily restricted to the scope in which it is created.  ] If  the
  entity  is  an  object,  the  new-expression  returns a pointer to the
  object created.  If it is  an  array,  the  new-expression  returns  a
  pointer to the initial element of the array.

2 The  new-type  in a new-expression is the longest possible sequence of
  new-declarators.  This prevents ambiguities between declarator  opera­
  tors &, *, [], and their expression counterparts.  [Example:
          new int*i;     // syntax error: parsed as `(new int*) i'
                         //               not as `(new int)*i'
  The  *  is the pointer declarator and not the multiplication operator.
  ]

3 Parentheses shall not appear in a new-type-id used as the operand  for
  new.

4 [Example:
          new int(*[10])();       // error
  is ill-formed because the binding is
          (new int) (*[10])();    // error
  Instead,  the explicitly parenthesized version of the new operator can
  be used to create objects of compound types (_basic.compound_):
          new (int (*[10])());
  allocates an array of 10 pointers to functions (taking no argument and

  returning int).  ]

5 The  type-specifier-seq  shall not contain class declarations, or enu­
  meration declarations.

6 When the allocated object  is  an  array  (that  is,  the  direct-new-
  declarator  syntax  is  used  or the new-type-id or type-id denotes an
  array type), the new-expression yields a pointer to the  initial  ele­
  ment  (if  any)  of  the  array.   [Note: both new int and new int[10]
  return an int* and the type of new int[i][10] is int (*)[10].  ]

7 Every constant-expression in a direct-new-declarator shall be an inte­
  gral  constant  expression  (_expr.const_)  with  a  strictly positive
  value.  The expression in a direct-new-declarator shall be of integral
  type  (_basic.fundamental_) with a non-negative value.  [Example: if n
  is a  variable  of  type  int,  then  new float[n][5]  is  well-formed
  (because   n  is  the  expression  of  a  direct-new-declarator),  but
  new float[5][n]  is  ill-formed  (because  n  is   not   a   constant-
  expression).  If n is negative, the effect of new float[n][5] is unde­
  fined.  ]

8 When the value of the expression in a direct-new-declarator  is  zero,
  an  array  with no elements is allocated.  The pointer returned by the
  new-expression is non-null and distinct from the pointer to any  other
  object.

9 Storage  for  the  object created by a new-expression is obtained from
  the appropriate allocation function  (_basic.stc.dynamic.allocation_).
  When  the  allocation  function  is called, the first argument will be
  amount of space requested (which shall be no larger than the  size  of
  the object being created unless that object is an array).

10An  implementation  shall  provide  default  definitions of the global
  allocation      functions      operator new()      for      non-arrays
  (_basic.stc.dynamic_,  _lib.new.delete.single_)  and  operator new[]()
  for arrays (_lib.new.delete.array_).  [Note: A C++ program can provide
  alternative        definitions        of        these        functions
  (_lib.replacement.functions_),    and/or    class-specific    versions
  (_class.free_).  ]

11The new-placement syntax can be used to supply additional arguments to
  an allocation function.  If used, overloading resolution  is  done  by
  assembling  an  argument  list from the amount of space requested (the
  first argument) and the expressions in the new-placement part  of  the
  new-expression (the second and succeeding arguments).

12[Example:

  --new T results in a call of operator new(sizeof(T)),

  --new(2,f) T results in a call of operator new(sizeof(T),2,f),

  --new T[5] results in a call of operator new[](sizeof(T)*5+x), and

  --new(2,f) T[5]        results        in        a        call       of
    operator new[](sizeof(T)*5+y,2,f).  Here, x and y are  non-negative,
    implementation-defined  values  representing  array allocation over­
    head.  They might vary from one use of new to another.  ]

13The allocation function shall either return null or  a  pointer  to  a
  block  of  storage  in  which the object shall be created.  [Note: the
  block of storage is assumed to be appropriately  aligned  and  of  the
  requested size. The address of the created object will not necessarily
  be the same as that of the block if the object is an array.  ]

14If the type of the object created by the new-expression is T:

  --If the new-initializer is omitted and T is a non-POD class type  (or
    array  thereof), then if the default constructor for T is accessible
    it is called, otherwise the program is ill-formed;

  --If the new-initializer is omitted and T is  a  POD  type  (or  array
    thereof), then the object thus created has indeterminate value;

  --If  the  new-initializer  is  of the form (), default-initialization
    shall be performed (_dcl.init_);

  --If the new-initializer is of the form ( expression-list) and T is  a
    class type, the appropriate constructor is called, using expression-
    list as the arguments (_dcl.init_);

  --If the new-initializer is of the form ( expression-list) and T is an
    arithmetic,  enumeration,  pointer,  or  pointer-to-member  type and
    expression-list comprises exactly one expression, then the object is
    initialized  to  the  (possibly  converted)  value of the expression
    (_dcl.init_);

  --Otherwise the new-expression is ill-formed.

15Access and ambiguity control are done for both the allocation function
  and the constructor (_class.ctor_, _class.free_).

16The  allocation  function can indicate failure by throwing a bad_alloc
  exception (_except_, _lib.bad.alloc_).  In this case no initialization
  is done.

17If the constructor throws an exception and the new-expression does not
  contain   a   new-placement,   then    the    deallocation    function
  (_basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation_,  _class.free_)  is used to free the
  memory in which the object was  being  constructed,  after  which  the
  exception continues to propagate in the context of the new-expression.

18If the constructor throws an exception and the new-expression contains
  a  new-placement,  a  name lookup is performed on the name of operator
  delete in the scope of this new-expression.  If  the  lookup  succeeds
  and  exactly  one of the declarations found matches the declaration of
  that placement operator new,  then  the  matching  placement  operator

  delete shall be called (_basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation_).

19A  declaration of placement operator delete matches the declaration of
  a placement operator new when it has the same number of parameters and
  all  parameter  types except the first are identical disregarding top-
  level cv-qualifiers.

20If placement operator delete is called, it is passed  the  same  argu­
  ments as were passed to placement operator new.  If the implementation
  is allowed to make a copy of an argument as part of the placement  new
  call,  it  is  allowed  to make a copy (of the same original value) as
  part of the placement delete call, or to reuse the copy made  as  part
  of  the  placement  new  call.  If the copy is elided in one place, it
  need not be elided in the other.

21The way the object was allocated determines how it is freed: if it  is
  allocated  by  ::new,  then  it  is freed by ::delete, and if it is an
  array, it is freed by delete[] or ::delete[] as appropriate.

22Whether the allocation function is called before evaluating  the  con­
  structor  arguments  or after evaluating the constructor arguments but
  before entering the constructor is unspecified.  It is  also  unspeci­
  fied whether the arguments to a constructor are evaluated if the allo­
  cation function returns the null pointer or throws an exception.

  5.3.5  Delete                                            [expr.delete]

1 The   delete-expression   operator   destroys   a   complete    object
  (_intro.object_) or array created by a new-expression.
          delete-expression:
                  ::opt delete cast-expression
                  ::opt delete [ ] cast-expression
  The  first alternative is for non-array objects, and the second is for
  arrays.  The operand shall have a pointer type.  The result  has  type
  void.

2 In  either  alternative,  if the value of the operand of delete is the
  null pointer the operation has no effect.   Otherwise,  in  the  first
  alternative  (delete object), the value of the operand of delete shall
  be a pointer to a non-array object created by a new-expression without
  a   new-placement   specification,   or  a  pointer  to  a  sub-object
  (_intro.object_)  representing  a  base  class  of  such   an   object
  (_class.derived_),  or  an  expression of class type with a conversion
  function to pointer type (_class.conv,fct_) which yields a pointer  to
  such  an  object.   If  not, the behavior is undefined.  In the second
  alternative (delete array), the value of the operand of  delete  shall
  be  a  pointer  to an array created by a new-expression without a new-
  placement specification.  If not, the behavior is undefined.

3 In the first alternative (delete object), if the static  type  of  the
  operand is different from its dynamic type, the static type shall have
  a virtual destructor or the behavior  is  undefined.   In  the  second
  alternative  (delete  array)  if  the dynamic type of the object to be
  deleted differs from its static type, the behavior is undefined.11)
  _________________________
  11) This implies that an object cannot be deleted  using  a  point  of

4 It is unspecified whether the deletion of an object changes its value.
  If the expression denoting the object in a delete-expression is a mod­
  ifiable  lvalue, any attempt to access its value after the deletion is
  undefined (_basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation_).

5 If the object being deleted has incomplete class type at the point  of
  deletion  and  the class has a non-trivial destructor or an allocation
  function or a deallocation function, the behavior is undefined.

6 The delete-expression will invoke the  destructor  (if  any)  for  the
  object  or the elements of the array being deleted.  In the case of an
  array, the elements will be destroyed in order of  decreasing  address
  (that is, in reverse order of construction; see _class.base.init_).

7 To  free  the  storage  pointed  to, the delete-expression will call a
  deallocation function (_basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation_).

8 An implementation provides default definitions of the global dealloca­
  tion       functions       operator delete()       for      non-arrays
  (_lib.new.delete.single_)   and   operator delete[]()    for    arrays
  (_lib.new.delete.array_).  A C++ program can provide alternative defi­
  nitions  of  these  functions  (_lib.replacement.functions_),   and/or
  class-specific versions (_class.free_).

9 Access  and ambiguity control are done for both the deallocation func­
  tion and the destructor (_class.dtor_, _class.free_).

  5.4  Explicit type conversion (cast notation)              [expr.cast]

1 The result of the expression (T) cast-expression is  of  type  T.   An
  explicit  type  conversion  can be expressed using functional notation
  (_expr.type.conv_),  a   type   conversion   operator   (dynamic_cast,
  static_cast, reinterpret_cast, const_cast), or the cast notation.
          cast-expression:
                  unary-expression
                  ( type-id ) cast-expression

2 Types shall not be defined in casts.

3 Any  type conversion not mentioned below and not explicitly defined by
  the user (_class.conv_) is ill-formed.

4 The conversions performed by static_cast  (_expr.static.cast_),  rein­
  terpret_cast           (_expr.reinterpret.cast_),           const_cast
  (_expr.const.cast_), or any sequence thereof, can be  performed  using
  the  cast  notation  of  explicit  type conversion.  The same semantic
  restrictions and behaviors apply.  If a given conversion can  be  per­
  formed  using  either static_cast or reinterpret_cast, the static_cast
  interpretation is used.

  _________________________
  type void* because there are no objects of type void.

5 In addition to those conversions, a pointer to an object of a  derived
  class  (_class.derived_)  can  be explicitly converted to a pointer to
  any of its  base  classes  regardless  of  accessibility  restrictions
  (_class.access.base_),   provided   the   conversion   is  unambiguous
  (_class.member.lookup_).  The resulting pointer will refer to the con­
  tained object of the base class.

  5.5  Pointer-to-member operators                      [expr.mptr.oper]

1 The pointer-to-member operators ->* and .*  group left-to-right.
          pm-expression:
                  cast-expression
                  pm-expression .* cast-expression
                  pm-expression ->* cast-expression

2 The  binary  operator  .*  binds its second operand, which shall be of
  type "pointer to member of T" to its first operand, which shall be  of
  class T or of a class of which T is an unambiguous and accessible base
  class.  The result is an object or a function of the type specified by
  the second operand.

3 The  binary  operator  ->* binds its second operand, which shall be of
  type "pointer to member of T" to its first operand, which shall be  of
  type  "pointer to T" or "pointer to a class of which T is an unambigu­
  ous and accessible base class." The result is an object or a  function
  of the type specified by the second operand.

4 The  restrictions on cv-qualification, and the manner in which the cv-
  qualifiers of the operands are combined to produce  the  cv-qualifiers
  of  the  result,  are  the  same  as  the  rules  for  E1.E2  given in
  [expr.ref].

5 If the result of .*  or ->* is a function, then  that  result  can  be
  used only as the operand for the function call operator ().  [Example:
          (ptr_to_obj->*ptr_to_mfct)(10);
  calls the member  function  denoted  by  ptr_to_mfct  for  the  object
  pointed  to  by  ptr_to_obj.   ]  The result of a .*  expression is an
  lvalue only if its first operand is an lvalue and its  second  operand
  is  a  pointer  to data member.  The result of an ->* expression is an
  lvalue only if its second operand is a pointer to data member.  If the
  second  operand  is the null pointer to member value (_conv.mem_), the
  behavior is undefined.

  5.6  Multiplicative operators                               [expr.mul]

1 The multiplicative operators *, /, and % group left-to-right.
          multiplicative-expression:
                  pm-expression
                  multiplicative-expression * pm-expression
                  multiplicative-expression / pm-expression
                  multiplicative-expression % pm-expression

2 The operands of * and / shall have arithmetic type; the operands of  %
  shall  have  integral type.  The usual arithmetic conversions are per­
  formed on the operands and determine the type of the result.

3 The binary * operator indicates multiplication.

4 The binary / operator yields the quotient, and the binary  %  operator
  yields  the remainder from the division of the first expression by the
  second.  If the second operand of / or % is zero the behavior is unde­
  fined;  otherwise  (a/b)*b  + a%b is equal to a.  If both operands are
  nonnegative then the remainder is nonnegative; if not, the sign of the
  remainder is implementation-defined.

  5.7  Additive operators                                     [expr.add]

1 The  additive operators + and - group left-to-right.  The usual arith­
  metic conversions are performed for operands of arithmetic type.
          additive-expression:
                  multiplicative-expression
                  additive-expression + multiplicative-expression
                  additive-expression - multiplicative-expression
  For addition, either both operands shall have arithmetic type, or  one
  operand shall be a pointer to a completely defined object type and the
  other shall have integral type.

2 For subtraction, one of the following shall hold:

  --both operands have arithmetic type;

  --both operands are pointers to cv-qualified  or  cv-unqualified  ver­
    sions of the same completely defined object type; or

  --the  left  operand  is a pointer to a completely defined object type
    and the right operand has integral type.

3 If both operands have arithmetic type, the  usual  arithmetic  conver­
  sions  are  performed on them.  The result of the binary + operator is
  the sum of the operands.  The result of the binary - operator  is  the
  difference  resulting  from the subtraction of the second operand from
  the first.

4 For the purposes of these operators, a pointer to  a  nonarray  object
  behaves  the  same  as  a  pointer to the first element of an array of
  length one with the type of the object as its element type.

5 When an expression that has integral type is added  to  or  subtracted
  from  a  pointer,  the result has the type of the pointer operand.  If
  the pointer operand points to an element of an array object,  and  the
  array is large enough, the result points to an element offset from the
  original element such that the difference of  the  subscripts  of  the
  resulting  and original array elements equals the integral expression.
  In other words, if the expression P points to the i-th element  of  an
  array  object,  the  expressions (P)+N (equivalently, N+(P)) and (P)-N

  (where N has the value n) point to, respectively, the i+n-th and  i-n-
  th  elements  of  the array object, provided they exist.  Moreover, if
  the expression P points to the last element of an  array  object,  the
  expression (P)+1 points one past the last element of the array object,
  and if the expression Q points one past the last element of  an  array
  object,  the  expression (Q)-1 points to the last element of the array
  object.  If both the pointer operand and the result point to  elements
  of  the  same  array object, or one past the last element of the array
  object, the evaluation shall not produce an overflow;  otherwise,  the
  behavior  is  undefined.   If  the result is used as an operand of the
  unary * operator, the behavior is undefined unless  both  the  pointer
  operand  and the result point to elements of the same array object, or
  the pointer operand points one past  the  last  element  of  an  array
  object and the result points to an element of the same array object.

6 When two pointers to elements of the same array object are subtracted,
  the result is the difference of the subscripts of the two  array  ele­
  ments.   The  type  of  the result is an implementation-defined signed
  integral type; this type shall be the same type  that  is  defined  as
  ptrdiff_t  in the <cstddef> header (_lib.support.types_).  As with any
  other arithmetic overflow, if the result does not  fit  in  the  space
  provided,  the  behavior is undefined.  In other words, if the expres­
  sions P and Q point to, respectively, the i-th and j-th elements of an
  array  object,  the  expression (P)-(Q) has the value i-j provided the
  value fits in an object of type ptrdiff_t.  Moreover, if  the  expres­
  sion  P points either to an element of an array object or one past the
  last element of an array object, and the expression Q  points  to  the
  last  element of the same array object, the expression ((Q)+1)-(P) has
  the same value as ((Q)-(P))+1 and as -((P)-((Q)+1)), and has the value
  zero if the expression P points one past the last element of the array
  object, even though the expression (Q)+1 does not point to an  element
  of  the  array  object.  Unless both pointers point to elements of the
  same array object, or one past the last element of the  array  object,
  the behavior is undefined.12)

  _________________________
  12) Another way to approach pointer arithmetic is first to convert the
  pointer(s) to character pointer(s): In this scheme  the  integral  ex­
  pression  added  to  or subtracted from the converted pointer is first
  multiplied by the size of the object originally pointed  to,  and  the
  resulting pointer is converted back to the original type.  For pointer
  subtraction, the result of the difference between the character point­
  ers  is similarly divided by the size of the object originally pointed
  to.

7 When viewed in this way, an implementation need only provide one extra
  byte  (which  might  overlap another object in the program) just after
  the end of the object in order to satisfy the "one past the last  ele­
  ment" requirements.

  5.8  Shift operators                                      [expr.shift]

1 The shift operators << and >> group left-to-right.
          shift-expression:
                  additive-expression
                  shift-expression << additive-expression
                  shift-expression >> additive-expression
  The  operands  shall  be  of integral type and integral promotions are
  performed.  The type of the  result  is  that  of  the  promoted  left
  operand.   The behavior is undefined if the right operand is negative,
  or greater than or equal to the length in bits of  the  promoted  left
  operand.   The  value of E1 << E2 is E1 (interpreted as a bit pattern)
  left-shifted E2 bits; vacated bits are zero-filled.  The value  of  E1
  >>  E2  is  E1  right-shifted E2 bit positions.  If E1 has an unsigned
  type or has a nonnegative value,  the  vacated  bits  shall  be  zero-
  filled.   If  E1 has a negative value, the behavior of the right shift
  is implementation-defined.

  5.9  Relational operators                                   [expr.rel]

1 [Note: the relational operators group left-to-right, but this fact  is
  not  very  useful;  a<b<c  means (a<b)<c and not (a<b)&&(b<c).   --end
  note]
          relational-expression:
                  shift-expression
                  relational-expression < shift-expression
                  relational-expression > shift-expression
                  relational-expression <= shift-expression
                  relational-expression >= shift-expression
  The operands shall have arithmetic or pointer type.  The  operators  <
  (less  than),  >  (greater  than),  <= (less than or equal to), and >=
  (greater than or equal to) all yield false or true.  The type  of  the
  result is bool.

2 The usual arithmetic conversions are performed on arithmetic operands.
  Pointer conversions are performed on pointer operands to bring them to
  the same type, which shall be a cv-qualified or cv-unqualified version
  of the type of one of the operands.   [Note:  this  implies  that  any
  pointer  can be compared to an integral constant expression evaluating
  to zero and any pointer can be compared to a pointer  of  cv-qualified
  or  cv-unqualified type void* (in the latter case the pointer is first
  converted to void*).  ] Pointers to objects or functions of  the  same
  type  (after  pointer conversions) can be compared; the result depends
  on the relative positions of the pointed-to objects  or  functions  in
  the address space as follows:

  --If  two  pointers of the same type point to the same object or func­
    tion, or both point one past the end of the same array, or are  both
    null, they compare equal.

  --If two pointers of the same type point to different objects or func­
    tions, or only one of them is null, they compare unequal.

  --If two pointers point to nonstatic data members of the same  object,

    the  pointer  to the later declared member compares greater provided
    the two members are  not  separated  by  an  access-specifier  label
    (_class.access.spec_) and provided their class is not a union.

  --If  two pointers point to nonstatic members of the same object sepa­
    rated by an access-specifier label (_class.access.spec_) the  result
    is unspecified.

  --If two pointers point to data members of the same union object, they
    compare equal (after conversion to void*,  if  necessary).   If  two
    pointers  point  to elements of the same array or one beyond the end
    of the array, the pointer to the object with  the  higher  subscript
    compares higher.

  --Other pointer comparisons are implementation-defined.

3
  5.10  Equality operators                                     [expr.eq]

1         equality-expression:
                  relational-expression
                  equality-expression == relational-expression
                  equality-expression != relational-expression
  The  ==  (equal  to) and the != (not equal to) operators have the same
  semantic restrictions, conversions, and result type as the  relational
  operators  except  for  their lower precedence and truth-value result.
  [Note: a<b == c<d is true whenever a<b and c<d have  the  same  truth-
  value.  ]

2 In  addition,  pointers  to  members of the same type can be compared.
  Pointer to member conversions (_conv.mem_) are performed.   A  pointer
  to  member  can  be  compared  to an integral constant expression that
  evaluates to zero.  If one operand is a pointer to  a  virtual  member
  function  and  the  other is not the null pointer to member value, the
  result is unspecified.

  5.11  Bitwise AND operator                              [expr.bit.and]

1         and-expression:
                  equality-expression
                  and-expression & equality-expression
  The usual arithmetic conversions are performed; the result is the bit­
  wise  function of the operands.  The operator applies only to integral
  operands.

  5.12  Bitwise exclusive OR operator                         [expr.xor]

1         exclusive-or-expression:
                  and-expression
                  exclusive-or-expression ^ and-expression
  The usual arithmetic conversions are performed; the result is the bit­
  wise exclusive function of the operands.  The operator applies only to

  integral operands.

  5.13  Bitwise inclusive OR operator                          [expr.or]

1         inclusive-or-expression:
                  exclusive-or-expression
                  inclusive-or-expression | exclusive-or-expression
  The usual arithmetic conversions are performed; the result is the bit­
  wise inclusive function of its operands.  The operator applies only to
  integral operands.

  5.14  Logical AND operator                              [expr.log.and]

1         logical-and-expression:
                  inclusive-or-expression
                  logical-and-expression && inclusive-or-expression
  The && operator groups left-to-right.  The operands are both converted
  to  type  bool (_conv.bool_).  The result is true if both operands are
  true and false otherwise.  Unlike &, && guarantees left-to-right eval­
  uation:  the  second  operand is not evaluated if the first operand is
  false.

2 The result is a bool.  All side effects of the first expression except
  for  destruction  of temporaries (_class.temporary_) happen before the
  second expression is evaluated.

  5.15  Logical OR operator                                [expr.log.or]

1         logical-or-expression:
                  logical-and-expression
                  logical-or-expression || logical-and-expression
  The || operator groups left-to-right.  The operands are both converted
  to  bool  (_conv.bool_).  It returns true if either of its operands is
  true, and false otherwise.   Unlike  |,  ||  guarantees  left-to-right
  evaluation; moreover, the second operand is not evaluated if the first
  operand evaluates to true.

2 The result is a bool.  All side effects of the first expression except
  for  destruction  of temporaries (_class.temporary_) happen before the
  second expression is evaluated.

  5.16  Conditional operator                                 [expr.cond]

1         conditional-expression:
                  logical-or-expression
                  logical-or-expression ? expression : assignment-expression
  Conditional expressions group right-to-left.  The first expression  is
  converted  to  bool (_conv.bool_).  It is evaluated and if it is true,
  the result of the conditional expression is the value  of  the  second
  expression,  otherwise that of the third expression.  All side effects
  of  the  first  expression  except  for  destruction  of   temporaries
  (_class.temporary_)  happen  before  the second or third expression is
  evaluated.

2 If either  the  second  or  third  expression  is  a  throw-expression
  (_except.throw_), the result is of the type of the other.

3 If  both  the second and the third expressions are of arithmetic type,
  then if they are of the same type the result is of that  type;  other­
  wise the usual arithmetic conversions are performed to bring them to a
  common type.  Otherwise, if both the second and the third  expressions
  are either a pointer or an integral constant expression that evaluates
  to zero, pointer conversions (_conv.ptr_) are performed to bring  them
  to a common type, which shall be a cv-qualified or cv-unqualified ver­
  sion of the type of either the second or the third expression.  Other­
  wise,  if  both  the  second  and  the  third expressions are either a
  pointer to member or an integral constant expression that evaluates to
  zero,  pointer  to  member  conversions  (_conv.mem_) are performed to
  bring  them  to  a common type13) which shall be a cv-qualified or cv-
  unqualified version of the type of either  the  second  or  the  third
  expression.   Otherwise,  if both the second and the third expressions
  are lvalues of related class types, they are  converted  to  a  common
  type  (which  shall be a cv-qualified or cv-unqualified version of the
  type of either the second third expression) as if by a cast to a  ref­
  erence  to  the  common type (_expr.static.cast_).  Otherwise, if both
  the second and the third expressions are of the same class T, the com­
  mon  type  is  T.  Otherwise, if both the second and the third expres­
  sions have type "cv void", the common type is "cv void." Otherwise the
  expression is ill formed.  The result has the common type; only one of
  the second and third expressions  is  evaluated.   The  result  is  an
  lvalue  if  the second and the third operands are of the same type and
  both are lvalues.

  5.17  Assignment operators                                  [expr.ass]

1 There are several assignment operators, all of which  group  right-to-
  left.   All require a modifiable lvalue as their left operand, and the
  type of an assignment expression is that of  its  left  operand.   The
  result  of  the  assignment  operation is the value stored in the left
  operand after the assignment has taken place; the result is an lvalue.
          assignment-expression:
                  conditional-expression
                  unary-expression assignment-operator assignment-expression
                  throw-expression
          assignment-operator: one of
                  =  *=  /=  %=   +=  -=  >>=  <<=  &=  ^=  |=

2 In simple assignment (=), the value of the expression replaces that of
  the object referred to by the left operand.

3 If the left operand is not of class type, the expression is  converted
  to  the cv-unqualified type of the left operand using standard conver­
  sions (_conv_)  and/or  user-defined  conversions  (_class.conv_),  as
  _________________________
  13) This is one instance in which the "composite type",  as  described
  in the C Standard, is still employed in C++.

  necessary.

4 Assignment  to  objects of a class (_class_) X is defined by the func­
  tion  X::operator=()  (_over.ass_).   Unless  the  user   defines   an
  X::operator=(),   the   default   version   is   used  for  assignment
  (_class.copy_).  This implies that an object of a class derived from X
  (directly    or   indirectly)   by   unambiguous   public   derivation
  (_class.derived_) can be assigned to an X.

5 For class objects, assignment is not in general the same  as  initial­
  ization (_dcl.init_, _class.ctor_, _class.init_, _class.copy_).

6 When the left operand of an assignment operator denotes a reference to
  T, the operation assigns to the object of type T denoted by the refer­
  ence.

7 The  behavior  of an expression of the form E1 op= E2 is equivalent to
  E1=E1 op E2 except that E1 is evaluated only once.  E1 shall not  have
  bool type.  In += and -=, E1 shall either have arithmetic type or be a
  pointer to a possibly-qualified completely defined  object  type.   In
  all other cases, E1 shall have arithmetic type.

8 See _except.throw_ for throw expressions.

  5.18  Comma operator                                      [expr.comma]

1 The comma operator groups left-to-right.
          expression:
                  assignment-expression
                  expression , assignment-expression
  A  pair of expressions separated by a comma is evaluated left-to-right
  and the value of the left expression is discarded.  All  side  effects
  of  the  left  expression  are  performed before the evaluation of the
  right expression.  The type and value of the result are the  type  and
  value  of  the  right  operand;  the  result is an lvalue if its right
  operand is.

2 In contexts where comma is given a special meaning, [Example: in lists
  of  arguments  to  functions  (_expr.call_)  and lists of initializers
  (_dcl.init_) ] the comma operator as  described  in  this  clause  can
  appear only in parentheses.  [Example:
          f(a, (t=3, t+2), c);
  has three arguments, the second of which has the value 5.  ]

  5.19  Constant expressions                                [expr.const]

1 In  several places, C++ requires expressions that evaluate to an inte­
  gral  or  enumeration  constant:   as   array   bounds   (_dcl.array_,
  _expr.new_), as case expressions (_stmt.switch_), as bit-field lengths
  (_class.bit_), as enumerator initializers (_dcl.enum_), and as  member
  constant initializers (_class.static.data_).
          constant-expression:
                  conditional-expression

  An    integral   constant-expression   can   involve   only   literals
  (_lex.literal_), enumerators, const values of integral or  enumeration
  types  initialized  with constant expressions (_dcl.init_), and sizeof
  expressions.  Floating literals (_lex.fcon_) can appear only  if  they
  are  cast  to integral or enumeration types.  Only type conversions to
  integral or enumeration types can be used.  In particular,  except  in
  sizeof  expressions, functions, class objects, pointers, or references
  shall not be used, and  assignment,  increment,  decrement,  function-
  call, or comma operators shall not be used.

2 Other  expressions  are  considered  constant-expressions only for the
  purpose     of     non-local     static     object      initialization
  (_basic.start.init_).  Such constant expressions shall evaluate to one
  of the following:

  --a null pointer value (_conv.ptr_),

  --a null member pointer value (_conv.mem_),

  --an arithmetic constant expression,

  --an address constant expression,

  --an address constant expression for an object type plus or  minus  an
    integral constant expression, or

  --a pointer to member constant expression.

3 An arithmetic constant expression shall have arithmetic or enumeration
  type  and  shall  only  have  operands  that  are   integer   literals
  (_lex.icon_),  floating  literals (_lex.fcon_), enumerators, character
  literals (_lex.ccon_) and sizeof  expressions  (_expr.sizeof_).   Cast
  operators  in  an  arithmetic  constant  expression shall only convert
  arithmetic or enumeration types to arithmetic  or  enumeration  types,
  except as part of an operand to the sizeof operator.

4 An  address  constant expression is a pointer to an lvalue designating
  an object of static storage duration or a function.  The pointer shall
  be created explicitly, using the unary & operator, or implicitly using
  an expression of array (_conv.array_) or function (_conv.func_)  type.
  The  subscripting  operator  []  and the class member access .  and ->
  operators, the & and * unary  operators,  and  pointer  casts  (except
  dynamic_casts,  _expr.dynamic.cast_) can be used in the creation of an
  address constant expression, but the value of an object shall  not  be
  accessed by the use of these operators.  An expression that designates
  the address of a member or  base  class  of  a  non-POD  class  object
  (_class_)  is  not  an  address  constant  expression (_class.cdtor_).
  Function calls shall not be used in an  address  constant  expression,
  even if the function is inline and has a reference return type.

5 A  pointer  to  member  constant expression shall be created using the
  unary & operator applied to a qualified-id operand  (_expr.unary.op_).